Manchu Studies in Korea
Manchu Studies in KoreaCHOE Yongchul*
1. Introduction
Manchu studies is a discipline that deals with the language, history, and
culture of the Manchu people. With the collapse of the Qing Empire
following the 1911 Revolution, the Manchus’ role in governing China
vanished, their language gradually disappeared, and they eventually become
largely assimilated into Han Chinese society. Yet this point of extreme decline
of Manchu power and identity heralded the formation of the discipline of
Manchu studies in China. Manchu studies had already developed outside of
China. Thanks to the pioneering efforts of Jesuit missionaries, the origins of
Manchu studies in Europe can be traced back to the seventeenth century. In
the nineteenth century, the center of Manchu studies in Europe moved to St.
Petersburg in Russia. Already during the Ming-Qing transition period, Japan
had started to show interest in Manchu history and culture. Later, during the
early twentieth century, as Japan developed its political infl uence in
Manchuria, the Japanese imperialist government strongly supported Manchu
studies and eagerly collected Manchu-related materials, with the result that
Japan has become a major center of the discipline. Recently, North American
scholars have become interested in Manchu studies, through contact with the
earlier research of European and Japanese scholars, and have in turn exerted
infl uence elsewhere under the rubric of the “new Qing history.” Taiwan stores
important materials, such as Drafts of the Old Manchu Archives （Jiu Manzhou
dang 舊滿洲檔）, and has been home to a small number of scholars who can
translate and research Manchu materials. However, Manchu studies in Taiwan
has increasingly declined along with knowledge of the Manchu language
itself. Manchu studies in Mainland China has revived, owing to the post-Mao
opening and the policy of “letting a hundred fl owers bloom.” Indeed, during
the three decades of reform and opening up, Mainland Manchu studies has
* Choe Yongchul is a professor in the Department of Chinese Language and
Literature of Korea University.
90 Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol.3 2012
produced a signifi cant quantity of research, including over one hundred
published monographs.1 The Number One Historical Archives in Beijing
stores a vast amount of Manchu materials. These are being organized and
cataloged by Manchu specialists, who are frequently native speakers of Sibe,
a language derived from and largely similar to Qing-era Manchu. The
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and the Minzu University in Beijing, as
well as the provincial governments of Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang, have
all established research institutes on the language, history, culture, documents,
and customs of the Manchu people. Mainland China, with its vast number of
primary materials and recent record of signifi cant academic achievements, has
established itself as the most important center of Manchu studies in the
world.
Manchu studies in Korea has not yet approached a very high standard.2
The number of Manchu specialists is modest, and the discipline has yet to
become popular. Yet a small number of scholars have overcome poor conditions
to produce remarkable work, and thus have kept the discipline alive. In
language, history, and geography, Korea has strong connections with the
Manchus, or Jurchens, so Korea has a good historical background for
Manchu studies. The Korean language is one of the languages most similar
with Manchu among the languages of Northeast Asia. The grammatical structure
of the two languages is similar, and there are a number of similar words.
Since the mid-Chosŏn period, a good number of textbooks on the Manchu
language have been published. These materials now exert a positive infl uence
on Manchu studies in Korea. To be sure, until recently few Korean scholars
have chosen to explore Manchu studies, with the exception of a few linguists
who have explored Chosŏn dynasty language textbooks primarily as a tool for
research into Korean linguistics or to compare Manchu and Korean. More
recently, however, a few Qing historians have started using Manchu materials
in the central and provincial archives of China. As historical sources, such
Manchu materials are most useful for research into Sino-Korean relations and
issues related to the Qing-Chosŏn border. Hence, Manchu studies in Korea is
focused on two fi elds: comparative linguistics and the history of Sino-Korean
relations. Recently, Korean scholars have realized that they need to develop
Manchu studies more broadly to explore issues involving language, history,
culture, custom, literature, and philology. They thus approach Manchu studies
1 Yan Chongnian, et al., Ershi shiji shijie Manxue zhuzuo tiyao （A Synopsis of
Manchu Studies throughout the World in the Twentieth Century） （Beijing:
Minzu Chubanshe, 2003）.
2 My discussion is limited to the scholarship of Republic of Korea. It does not
include achievements of North Korean scholars.
Manchu Studies in Korea 91
with an interdisciplinary perspective. They believe that their efforts on
Manchu studies can eventually help the development of Korean studies, as
well as the broader discipline of Asian studies.
2. Manchu Textbooks of the Chosŏn Period: The Four Books of Qing
Studies
The Jurchen people of the Jin dynasty （1115-1234） had their own writing
system. This writing system gradually fell out of use during the Ming
dynasty （1368-1644）. However, in 1599, as the Jurchens began to regain
political strength, Nurhachi, the leader of the Jianzhou Jurchens, had the
Mongol script adapted to form a new Manchu writing system. Nurhachi’s
script was modifi ed during the 1620s and 1630s with the addition of dots and
circles to reduce ambiguities in the script. This new writing system became
the medium for countless documents produced after the Manchu Qing
conquered China in 1644. During the Ming-Qing transition, Jurchen and
Chosŏn relations were transformed by the restructuring of Northeast Asia. The
Translators Institute （Sayŏgwŏn 司譯院） of the early Chosŏn court taught four
languages: Mongolian, Japanese, Jurchen, and Chinese. They were called the
“four studies,” and the offi ce was supervised by the Board of Rites. In 1667,
after the Manchu conquest of China, Jurchen studies became renamed Qing
studies. The Translators Institute published textbooks and dictionaries, fi rst in
Jurchen, then in Manchu, from fi fteenth century until the late eighteenth
century. They were usually used by translators and students who took the
qualifi cation examinations to become translators.
According to the Gazette of the Tongmungwan 通文館志,3 during the early
Chosŏn there were fourteen different textbooks used in Jurchen studies,
including the Thousand Character Classic （Cheonjamun 千字文）, Three-
Year-Old Child （Samsea 三歲兒）, Discussion with a Little Child （Soaron 小兒
論）, Eight-Year-Old Child （P’alsea八歲兒）, and Geohwa （去化）.4
Unfortunately, none of these Jurchen texts are currently extant. In 1639 an
instructor of Jurchen studies, Sin Gye-am （申繼黯）, reworked fi ve of these
books （Thousand Character Classic, Three-Year-Old Child, Eight-Year-Old
3 T’ongmungwan 通文館（ China Relations Institute） was established in 1276 by
King Ch’ongryŏl （r. 1274-1298） of the Koryo dynasty. Later, it was renamed
Sayŏgwŏn and it covered other foreign languages as well as Chinese. In his
T’ongmungwan chi completed in 1720, Kim Chinam 金指南 still used the
former name T’ongmungwan but in fact, it mainly deals with the history of
Sayŏgwŏn.
4 Tongmungwan ji, vol. 2, 3b, and vol. 7, 20b. Some of the books are listed by
slightly different titles in the law codes, such as the Thousand Character
Classic, which is listed as Chŏnja（ 千字） instead of as Chŏnjamun.
92 Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol.3 2012
Child, Geohwa, and Discussion with a Little Child） from Jurchen into
Manchu. To be sure, Jurchen studies before the seventeenth century and Qing
studies after the seventeenth century must have been signifi cantly different,
but Sin Gye-am was able to understand the new Manchu language. Of the
fi ve books, only two （Eight-Year-Old Child and Discussion with a Little
Child） have survived to the present. In addition to these fi ve, there were two
other Manchu textbooks: Translation of the Manchu Romance of the Three
Kingdoms （Samyeok chonghae 三譯總解） and Conversations in Manchu
（Cheong-eo nogeoldae 淸語老乞大 or Sinseok nogeoldae 新釋老乞大）. After
1683 these four books （Eight-Year-Old Child, Discussion with a Little Child,
Translation of the Manchu Romance of the Three Kingdoms, and
Conversations in Manchu） became the main textbooks of Qing studies and
were collectively referred to as the “Four Books of Qing Studies”
（Cheonghak saseo 淸學四書）.
Conversations in Manchu was adapted from the original Chinese conversation
textbook. The translation was produced on the basis of the experiences
of Korean repatriates from China who had been captured during and after the
Manchu invasion of Korea in 1636-1637. This edition, which was printed in
1703, has since disappeared. In 1765 Kim Chinha （金振夏） revised
Conversations in Manchu and published it in P’yŏngyang in a woodblock
edition.5 This edition is quite widespread and is now found in various countries,
including France, the United Kingdom, and Japan. Chŏng Kwang has
edited it and made it readily available as a modern publication Chŏng
Kwang, titled A New Explanation of Conversations in Manchu （Chŏngŏ
nogŏldae sinsŏk 淸語老乞大新釋）.6 The Translation of the Manchu Romance
of the Three Kingdoms was another important Manchu textbook. It was based
largely on a 1650s Manchu translation by Kicungge, a Manchu grand secretary,
of a Jiajing-period （1796-1820） popular edition of the Romance of the
Three Kingdoms （commonly called Sanguozhi tongsu yanyi 三國志通俗演義）.
Kicungge’s translation, frequently referred to as the Romance of the Three
Kingdoms in Manchu, was adapted for use as a language textbook by order of
Min Chŏngjung （閔鼎重）, supervisor of the Translators Institute during the
reign of King Sukjong （r. 1675-1720）. The resulting text, Translation of the
Manchu Romance of the Three Kingdoms, circulated only in manuscript form
5 Tongmungwan ji, vol. 8; Sinsok Chŏngŏ nogŏldae 新釋淸語老乞大 is edited on
the basis of this 1765 edition of Chŏngŏ nogŏldae published in Kiyŏng 箕營
（modern P’yŏngyang 平壤）.
6 Chŏng Kwang, Kut’aek taehak tosŏgwan sojang Chŏngŏ nogŏldae （New
Translation of Chŏngŏ nogŏldae stored in Komazawa University 駒澤大學）
（Seoul: Taehaksa, 1998）. This book includes not only reprint of the original
but also an introduction and a Korean glossary to the book.
Manchu Studies in Korea 93
until 1703, when six people, including Pak Ch’angyu （朴昌裕）, raised funds
for its printing. In 1774 Kim Chinha published a revised version of the book
in a woodblock edition. The introduction of this new edition includes detailed
information on the origins and history of this publication. Eight-Year-Old
Child and Discussion with a Little Child were originally Jurchen-studies textbooks
and were redone as textbooks for Manchu language study by Sin
Kyeam after the Manchu invasion of 1636-1637. However, it was not printed
until 1703, when it was published in a woodblock edition by Kim Chinha.
Later it was reprinted in 1777. A copy of this 1777 edition is now housed in
the library of Seoul National University. The fi rst volume of A New
Translation of Discussion with a Little Child （Sinyeok Soaron 新譯小兒論）
includes an introduction by Yi Cham （李潜） with detailed information on the
origins of this book. These two Manchu textbooks have not attracted enough
attention from scholars. Eight-Year-Old Child is about a child prodigy who
responds with witty answers to a series of questions by an emperor and eventually
receives an offi cial title. In this text, each Manchu word is transcribed
in the Hangŭl script. It is thus an ideal tool for studying not only Manchu but
also Korean of the Chosŏn period. Discussion with a Little Child has a structure
similar to Eight-Year-Old Child and is also about a child prodigy, this one
only three years old but able to give witty answers to various questions. In
1956 the Institute of Eastern Studies （Tongbanghak） of Yonsei University in
Seoul （named Yonhee University then） reprinted the Translation of the
Manchu Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Vocabulary （Dongmun yuhae 同文
類解）, Eight-Year-Old Child, and Discussion with a Little Child. This reprint
is still accessible today.
In addition, a series of Manchu dictionaries and bilingual works were
published, including the Thousand Character Classic in Manchu and Chinese
（Man-Han Chŏnjamun 滿漢千字文）, Vocabulary, and Chinese-Manchu
Dictionary （Han-Chŏng mungam 漢淸文鑑）. In the Thousand Character
Classic in Manchu and Chinese, Manchu words are translated into Korean,
and Chinese characters are followed by the Korean pronunciation in the
Hangŭl script. Vocabulary, a dictionary edited by Hyŏn Munhang （玄文恒）
and produced by the Publication Offi ce （Kyosŏgwan 校書館） in 1748, was
based on A Manchu Vocabulary （Chŏnghak mulmyŏng 淸學物名） and also
refers to the Manchu Dictionary （Chŏngmungam 淸文鑑）, the Complete Book
of the Great Qing （Daechŏng jŏnsŏ 大淸全書）, and An Extended Vocabulary
（Dongmun kwanghwi 同文廣彙）. The postscript to A Manchu Vocabulary,
written by An Myŏngsŏl （安命說）, describes the publication history of this
work in considerable detail. The book housed in the Gyujanggak Library of
Seoul National University is the edition revised and reprinted by Kim Jinha.
The Chinese-Manchu Dictionary, based on the Imperially Commissioned
94 Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol.3 2012
Enlarged Manchu Dictionary （Yuzhi zengding Qingwenjian 御製增訂清文鑑）
of the Qianlong period, consists of 15 volumes and 15 sections. The publication
year is unknown but is presumed to be circa 1779. In this work, both
Manchu and Chinese characters are all transcribed in Hangŭl and followed by
detailed defi nitions in Korean. In this multilingual dictionary, the three
languages can be compared with one another. In comparison with other
Manchu dictionaries, this work is the richest in terms of the vast number of
words it contains. This work too was edited and printed under Kim Chinha’s
supervision, but it did not circulate widely. Copies of this book are now
found in the library of the University of East Asian Languages in Paris and
the library of Tokyo University. This book was reprinted by Yonsei
University under the title Korean, Chinese, and Manchu Dictionary （Han-
Han-Chŏng mungam 韓漢淸文鑑）.
Manchu textbooks and dictionaries published in Korea during the Chosŏn
period have now become important materials for study of the Manchu and
Korean languages of that period.7 With the help of these works, it is possible
to research in depth the interactions among various East Asian languages and
peoples.8
3. Manchu Materials on Qing-Korean Relations: Archives in Beijing
and the Provinces
Manchu materials can be divided into four categories: archives, translations,
genealogies, and stone inscriptions. Archives include documents,
pictures, and maps produced during the daily work of various offi cial organizations.
Large quantities of Manchu archival materials have remained. They
deal with various issues, including politics, the economy, military affairs,
ethnicity, and religion, and so they are highly valuable sources. They are now
stored in national, provincial, and municipal archives. The Number One
7 The library of Korea University now stores the woodblocks of language textbooks
used in the Translators Institute during the Chosŏn period, including
Sangwŏnjaeŏ （象院題語）, Pakt’ongsa sinyŏk （朴通事新譯）, Pakt’ongsa sinyŏk
ŏnhae （朴通事新譯諺解）, Mongŏ nogeoldae （蒙語老乞大）, Ch’ŏphae sinŏ （捷
解新語）, Chŏngŏ nogŏldae （淸語老乞大）, Samyŏk ch’onghae （三譯總解）,
Tongmun yuhae （同文類解）, Chunggan ch’ophae sinŏ （重刊捷解新語）,
Chŏphae sinŏ munyŏk（ 捷解新語文釋）, and Waeŏ yuhae（ 類解）. The number of
woodblocks amounts to 590. See Chŏngg Kwang and Yun Seyŏng,
Sayŏkgwŏn yŏkhaksŏ ch’aekpan yŏngu （A Study of Editions of Books for
Translation at Sayŏkwŏn）（ Seoul: Korea University Press, 1998）.
8 So far, several Korean scholars—including Sŏng Paegin, Chŏng Kwang, and
Ch’oe Tonggwŏn—have researched the Manchu-language textbooks published
during the Chosŏn period. I mainly refer to Chŏng Kwang’s introduction to A
New Explanation of Conversations in Manchu.
Manchu Studies in Korea 95
Historical Archives in Beijing stores the largest number of Manchu archival
materials in the world. The National Palace Museum and the Institute of
History and Philology in Taiwan also include a signifi cant number of Manchu
archival sources. The National Palace Museum stores the Drafts of the Old
Manchu Archives （Jiu Manzhou dang 舊滿洲檔）, the original source for the
Old Manchu Archives （Manwen laodang 滿文老檔）. The Tōyō Bunko in Japan
houses the Archives of the Bordered Red Banner （Xianghongqidang 鑲紅旗
檔）. The archives of the offi ces of Heilongjiang Governor General, Ningguta
Lieutenant General, and Hunchun Lieutenant General were ransacked by the
Russian army during the Boxer Rebellion of 1910. Later, in 1956, they were
repatriated to China and are now housed in the Number One Historical
Archives.
Signifi cant progress has been made in organizing and publishing the
Manchu archives since China’s reforms beginning in the late 1970s.
According to Wu Yuanfeng, director of the Manchu Documents Section of the
Number One Historical Archives, the Number One Historical Archives has
already published 15 Chinese translations of Manchu documents, 7 works that
include both Manchu documents and their Chinese counterparts, and 6 works
that just reproduce original Manchu documents.9 Included in the last category
are the Archives of the Lieutenant General’s Offi ce in Hunchun （Hunchun
Fudutong Yamen Dang’an 琿春副都統衙門檔案）. Since Hunchun is located on
China’s northeastern border near both Korea and Russia, the archive is a
unique and important historical source for the study of relations among the
three countries.
Drafts of the Old Manchu Archives is an offi cial history of the early Qing
period, covering 1607 to 1636. This book, which includes a large amount of
information not mentioned in Chinese materials, is a valuable source for
studying Manchu history and language.
A few Korean scholars have already started to translate and research this
book. Choi Donggwon has already fi nished translating “Huangzidang” （荒字
檔）, the fi rst volume of this book, and is now working on the “Zezidang” （昃
字檔）, the second volume. According to him, translating Drafts of the Old
Manchu Archives requires understanding the historical background, becoming
9 Wu Yuanfeng, “Zhongguo Dalu bianyi chuban Qingdai Manwen dang’an
gaikuang zongshu” （A Summary of the General Circumstances of the
Mainland’s Editing, Translating, and Publishing of the Qing Period Manchu
Archives）, presented at the international conference “Manjuhak ŭi hyonhwang
kwa kwaje” （The Present and Future of Manchu Studies）, hosted by the
Research Institute of Korean Studies, Korea University, April 15, 2011. Wu is
the director of the Manchu Documents Section in the Number One Historical
Archives.
96 Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol.3 2012
familiar with the personal and geographic names mentioned in the book, and
having a good knowledge of Mongolian and Chinese. He emphasizes that to
develop Manchu studies in Korea, it is important to produce specialists on the
Manchu language, collect materials related to Manchu studies, upgrade international
exchanges, and establish a specialized research institute for Manchu
studies.10
4. Manchu Versions of Novels and Plays
Korean scholars have yet to research the Manchu versions of traditional
Chinese novels. The Four Books of Qing Studies of Chosŏn Korea include
the Translation of the Manchu Romance of the Three Kingdoms, based on
Kicungge’s Manchu-language translation of this romance. Research on this
Korean translation cannot be considered apart from the issue of translation
and its relation to earlier editions of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms in
both Chinese and Manchu. Currently, however, Korean scholars of Chinese
literature have paid little attention to the Manchu versions of novels.
Chinese novels played a signifi cant role in the lives of Manchus during
the early Qing. Even during the Jin dynasty, the Jurchens greatly favored
narrative literature. The fi rst two rulers of the Manchu state, Nurhachi and
Hongtaiji, were both especially fond of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
In 1639 Hongtaiji ordered the translation of Chinese novels, including the
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, to use them as guides for administration.
After the Qing conquest of China proper in 1644, the fi rst Manchu translation
of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms was published in 1650. Later, Water
Margin （Shuihuzhuan 水滸傳）, Jin Ping Mei （金甁梅）, which is known as
Plum in the Golden Base to general audience, and Romance of the West
Chamber （Xixiangji 西廂記） were also translated into Manchu. It would be
interesting indeed to fi gure out the infl uence of these Manchu translations on
Chosŏn-era Korean vernacular translations of these same Chinese novels.
Possible projects include a comparison of the translation methods and style of
the bilingual Manchu-Chinese Romance of the West Chamber （Man-Han
Xixiangji 滿漢西廂記） with a similar bilingual Korean-vernacular and Chinese
version of the Romance of the West Chamber （currently available under the
title Seon-Han ssangmun Seosanggi 鮮漢雙文西廂記）.
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms in Manchu （which in Manchu is
simply titled Ilan gurun i bithe） appeared during the Shunzhi period （1644-
1661）, in a text divided into 24 juan. At the time, under order of Dorgon
10 Ch’oe Tonggwŏn, “Hanguk ŭi Manjuhak yŏngu panghyang” （Research
Tendencies of Manchu Studies in Korea）, presented at the international
conference “Manjuhak yŏngu ŭi hyŏnsang kwa kwajae” （see n. 7）.
Manchu Studies in Korea 97
（who was the prince regent from 1644-1650）, seven offi cials, including the
grand secretary Kicungge, organized a translation team. In 1650 Kicungge
informed Dorgon, “The translation has now been completed, and the text has
been printed.” The Manchu translation was based on a popular Chinese
edition from the Jiajing period （1522-1566） of the Ming dynasty. The
Yongzheng period （1723-1735） saw the publication of another 24-juan
Manchu translation, The Man-Han Bilingual Version of the Romance of the
Three Kingdoms （Man-Han hebi Sanguozhi 滿漢合璧三國志）.
The Chosŏn Translation of the Manchu Romance of the Three Kingdoms
（Samyeok chonghae 三譯總解）, one of the Manchu textbooks of Chosŏn
Korea, was derived from ten chapters of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms
in Manchu. Within this text, Manchu is transcribed in the Hangŭl script
written parallel to the Manchu text. At appropriate locations, a pause is made
in the Manchu text to make space for a Korean vernacular translation of the
preceding Manchu text. This parallel translation was fi rst published in 1703
and then reprinted in 1774. Its Korean title, Samyŏk chonghae, is ambiguous,
as “samyŏk” （three translations, or translation of Three） may merely mean
that it is a translation of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms （by which interpretation
a literal translation of the title would be Complete Explication of the
Translation of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms）, or it may refer to the
three different linguistic components of the book: the original Manchu, the
Hangŭl transcription of the Manchu, and the Korean vernacular translation.
According to Kishida Fumitaka, the Shunzhi edition of the Romance of the
Three Kingdoms in Manchu originated from the Chinese version of the Ming
period, and the Manchu text of the Man-Han Bilingual Version of the
Romance of the Three Kingdoms was a revision of the Romance of the Three
Kingdoms in Manchu, with its Chinese text being based on the edition of Li
Duowu （李卓吾）.11 When the Manchu and Chinese texts confl icted with each
other, the editor followed the Romance of the Three Kingdoms in Manchu and
corrected the corresponding Chinese text. The Korean text of the Translation
of the Manchu Romance of the Three Kingdoms was translated from the
Manchu text, but sometimes referred to the Chinese version.
The Manchu version of the Water Margin consists of four volumes. It is
currently housed in the Minzu University library in China. The title, Water
Margin in Manchu （Manwen Shuihuzhuan 滿文水滸傳）, seems to have been
attached to the right side of the cover well after the original publication. The
fi rst volume lists the names of the characters in the book, divided, according
to the narrative of the Water Margin, into the 36 incarnations of heavenly
11 Kishida Fumitaka, “Samyŏkchonghae chŏbongo” （On the Original Editions of
Samyŏk ch’onghae）, Altai hakbo, no. 2 （1997）.
98 Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol.3 2012
spirits （Tian’gangxing 天罡星）—including Songjiang, Lu Zhunyi, Wu Yong,
Gongson Sheng, Lin Zhong, Qin Ming, and Yan Qing—and the 72 incarnations
of earthly spirits （Dishaxing 地煞星）—including Zhou Wu, Huang Xin,
Bai Sheng, Shi Qian, and Duan Jingzhou. However, this Manchu edition
missed quite a number of names and used incorrect characters for many more.
For example, among the 36 incarnations of heavenly spirits, Hu Yanzhuo （呼
延灼） is rendered incorrectly as Hu Yansuo （呼延朔） and Huarong （花榮） is
rendered with the wrong characters （花容）, while among the 72 incarnations
of earthly spirits, the names of twenty are wrongly listed, including Han Dao
（韓滔）, who is listed as Han Chao （韓超）, and Wei Dingguo （魏定國）, whose
name is rendered incorrectly as Wei Dingguo 衛定國. In addition, 20 names
are simply missed. These kinds of mistakes frequently happened in Korean
translations of Chinese literature. In Korean versions, all the contents were
written in Korean and only the titles of books were rendered in Chinese on
the cover after the book had been bound. Usually the translator and the
person who made the Chinese book title were different. Hence, the person
who made the title frequently did not know the original title of the book or
the names of characters who appeared in the book.12 In the case above of the
Water Margin, it can be said that the person who wrote the Chinese names for
the characters did not know the novel well.
The Manchu version of the Jin Ping Mei has attracted the attention of many
scholars. According to Shaolian （昭褳） in his Miscellaneous Notes （Xiaoting
zalu 蕭亭雜錄）, “Hesu （和素）, director of the Board of Revenue, excels at
translation. He has translated the Romance of the West Chamber and Jin Ping
Mei, among others. Whenever he translates a book, he gives every word its
appropriate meaning so that people love to read the book.” Jin Ping Mei in
Manchu fi rst appeared in 1708. The introduction in the fi rst volume is dated
the lunar Fifth Month of 1708. It comprises 40 juan and 100 chapters. It does
not include pictures, and every page has nine columns, read from left to right,
as is usual for Manchu books. Another Manchu version, found in the library
of Tenli University in Japan, comprises 40 juan and 80 ce.13 Hesu, whose
courtesy name was Cunzhai （存齋）, was a member of the Manchu Bordered
Yellow Banner and worked as a secretary in the Grand Secretariat. According
12 For example, the title of Pingbingjŏn（ 聘聘傳）, a Korean novel of the Chosŏn
period, was written as “Pingpingzhuan” （聘聘傳） on the cover and mentioned
as “Pingbingjŏn” （빙빙전） in the text. Scholars had not thought that it was a
translation. Later, however, it was found that the name, Bingbing actually
came from Jia Pingping （賈娉娉）, a character of an episode of the novel
Jiandeng xinhua （剪燈新話）. That is, the cover title should have been written
as 娉娉傳.
13 Juan 卷 and ce 册 are equivalent to chapter and volume in English.
Manchu Studies in Korea 99
to A Collection of Eminent Qing Biographies （Guochao qixian leizheng
chubian 國朝耆獻類徵初編）, Hesu edited the 18-juan Instrumental Treasures
Contrasted （Jinbao hebi 琴寶合璧）, which was a Manchu translation of Music
Bequeathed from Antiquity （Taigu yiyin 太古遺音） by Yang Lun （楊掄） of the
Ming period. Twelve years after the publication of Jin Ping Mei with annotations
by Zhang Zhubo （張竹坡）, Hesu translated the novel from Zhang’s
version, deleting Zhang’s annotations and translating the main text into
Manchu.14 In the introduction of the Manchu version, Hesu states, “Fortune
and misfortune are decided by rewarding virtue and punishing vice. I amuse
myself and demonstrate my talent with writing.” He continues, “With the help
of reason and inborn nature, the book explains the phenomenon of nature; it
differentiates the steadfast from the wicked by showing love for righteousness
and expressing disgust for wickedness. Although it should be categorized as
miscellaneous writing, it still includes some valuable elements.” He summarized
the book by saying, “The one hundred chapters represent one hundred
admonitions.” From this, it is clear that Hesu translated this novel to
admonish the people.
The Romance of the West Chamber in Manchu and Chinese （Man-Han
Xixiangji）, comprising 4 juan and 16 chapters, was printed by woodblock in
1710. This book is also called the Manchu-Han Bilingual Version of the
Romance of the West Chamber （Man-Han hebi Xixiangji）. The fi rst volume
includes a bilingual introduction written in Manchu and Chinese.15 Every
volume includes a table of contents. Each line is divided in half, with
Manchu on the left and Chinese on the right. For example, the fi rst line of the
fi rst volume, which may be rendered as “Preface to the Romance of the West
Chamber, the Manchu-Chinese Romance of the West Chamber,” has “si siyang
gi bithei sioi, manju nikan si siyang gi” in Manchu on the left and “西厢记序
满汉西厢记” in Chinese on the right. The Romance of the West Chamber in
Manchu and Chinese is based on the Romance of the West Chamber with
Punctuation and Annotations by Jin Shengtan （Jin Shengtan pingdian
Xixiangji 金聖嘆評點西廂記）, which was popular during the early Qing
dynasty. However, the Manchu-Chinese version includes only the fi rst four
juan （sixteen chapters） and excludes the fi fth juan （another four chapters）.
This version is now housed in the Chon’gyŏng’gak library of Sungkyunkwan
14 Wang Rumei, “Manwen yiben Jin Ping Mei xu he zuozhe Lu Nan shuo” （The
Preface of the Manchu Translation of Jin Ping Mei and the Theory That the
Author Is Lu Nan）, in Wang Rumei jiedu “Jin Ping Mei” （Wang Rumei
Explains Jin Ping Mei）（ Changchun: Shidai Wenyi Chubanshe）.
15 The authors of the Manchu version and the introduction are anonymous.
According to Shaolian, the author of Man-Han Xixiang ji is likely to be Hesu.
100 Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol.3 2012
University in Korea and the Institute of Eastern Culture at the University of
Tokyo in Japan, among other places.16
Interestingly enough, Chosŏn the Romance of the West Chamber appealed
to Koreans of the Chosŏn period. Kim Chŏnghŭi （金正喜）, a famous late-
Chosŏn scholar, translated it. A bilingual version of the novel in Korean and
Chinese survives. A copy of this book, titled Romance of the West Chamber
in Korean and Chinese （Sŏn-Han ssangmun Sŏsanggi 鮮漢雙文西廂記）, is now
found in the rare-books library of Korea University. In this book, the original
Chinese is written in red ink. An interesting future research topic would be to
compare this version with the Romance of the West Chamber in Manchu and
Chinese, mentioned above. In addition, there is a famous Korean translation
of the Dream of the Red Chamber, titled the Complete Translation of the
Dream of the Red Chamber （Hongnumong chŏnyŏkpon 紅樓夢全譯本）. In this
book, the original Chinese characters were written in red ink and were transcribed
in Hangŭl on the side of each Chinese character. The Korean translation
was put at the bottom of each page. This layout of the translation is
similar to that of Chinese novels in Manchu translated by the Chosŏn
Translators Institute for use as Manchu textbooks. It is possible that the translator
of the Dream of the Red Chamber was familiar with not only Chinese
but also Manchu, as he referred to the Manchu version of the novel. A fascinating
research topic would be to compare the Korean and Manchu translations
of Chinese novels.
5. Conclusion
Although Manchu studies in Korea has a history several decades long and
has produced a number of excellent scholars, it still has attracted only limited
attention among scholars and lacks comprehensive research. The Research
Institute of Korean Studies at Korea University, however, has already established
a long-term and ambitious plan to develop and lead Manchu studies in
Korea. It has already made efforts to understand previous research in this fi eld
within and outside of Korea. We have also invited Korean specialists on the
Manchu language to give Manchu language classes.17 In addition, to upgrade
16 According to the introduction of Beijing Baoli Guoji Paimai Gongsi to Man-Han
Xixiangji, each volume has a table of contents and four pictures. The author,
however, is unknown.
17 In the Research Institute of Korean Studies, the elementary Manchu class uses
Kawachi Yoshihiro, Manshūgo bungo bunten （A Grammar of Literary
Manchu） and Zhuang Jifa, Yumen tingzheng （The Emperor Administers the
Affairs of State）. At a more advanced level, the intermediate class reads
Manzhou shilu （Veritable Records of the Manchus）, Gongzhongdang
Kangxichao zouzhe （vol. 8） （Palace Collection of Memorials of the Kangxi
Manchu Studies in Korea 101
research on the history of international relations among Korea, China, and
Russia, researchers of the institute are reading and researching the Archives of
the Lieutenant General’s Offi ce in Hunchun and writing research papers
related to this archive.18 Its Manchu-Korean research team has already
fi nished translating and annotating Conversations in Manchu and Dzengšeo’s
My Service in the Army （Manchu: Beye-I cooha bade yabuha babe ejehe
bithe; Chinese: Suijun jixing 隨軍紀行）.19 Both works are very close to publication.
The team is now annotating and translating the Vocabulary. They also
have plans to translate Jin Ping Mei, the Imperially Commissioned Manchu
Dictionary （Yuzhi Qingwenjian 御製淸文鑑）, and the Chinese-Manchu
Dictionary.
Last year Sŏng Paegin, emeritus professor of Seoul National University,
donated valuable Manchu materials to the Research Institute of Korean
Studies, greatly strengthening the institute’s Manchu collection. The institute
has invited Chinese scholars from the Number One Historical Archives and
the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences to hold a discussion on Manchu
studies.20 The institute has also dispatched scholars to Beijing for academic
exchanges. In addition, it has invited Mark Elliott, a Manchu specialist, to
deliver a series of lectures. This April the institute hosted an international
conference, inviting eminent Manchu specialists as presenters and discussants.
21 The conference produced constructive academic output and stimulated
Manchu studies in Korea. Although Manchu studies in Korea is still a
fl edging discipline, this institute has indomitable academic ambitions and
seeks to become a center of Manchu studies in Korea.
Reign）, and Qingdai Zhungaer shiliao （Qing Period Dzungar Historical
Sources）, among other works.
18 This archive was published in 238 volumes in 2006 by the Guangxi Shifan
Daxue Chubanshe.
19 Trans. note: I follow the translation suggested by Mark C. Elliot, The Manchu
Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China
（Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001）, p. 445, n. 52.
20 Guest scholars included Ding Yizhuang from the Chinese Academy of Social
Sciences and Zhang Li from the Number One Historical Archives.
21 Presenters included Wu Yuanfeng （Number One Historical Archives in
Beijing）, Zhao Zhiqiang （Chinese Academy of Social Sciences）, Kusunoki
Yoshimichi （Tsukuba University in Japan）, Lin Shixuan （National Palace
Museum in Taipei）, Marcus Bingenheimer （Dharma Drum Buddhist College
in Taiwan）, Ko Tongho （Chŏnbuk University in Korea）, and Ch’oe Tonggwŏn
（Sangji University in Korea）. Acting as discussants were Kim Sŏnmin, Kim
Yubŏm, Pak Sangsu, and other specialists. 这么长的一段英文……
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